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Many amplifiers commercially available today are based on integrated circuits.

In this example the amplifier has a voltage gain of 3; that is at any instant.

The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input.

An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.

Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely used in almost all electronic equipment.

One is by the frequency of the electronic signal being amplified.

For example, audio amplifiers amplify signals in the audio (sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers amplify frequencies in the radio frequency range between 20 kHz and 300 GHz, and servo amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers may work with very low frequencies down to direct current.

Vacuum tubes were used in almost all amplifiers until the 1960s1970s when transistors replaced them.

Today, most amplifiers use transistors, but vacuum tubes continue to be used in some applications.

The Audion (triode) vacuum tube had a voltage gain of about 5, providing a total gain of approximately 125 for this three-stage amplifier.

In telegraphy, this problem had been solved with intermediate devices at stations that replenished the dissipated energy by operating a signal recorder and transmitter back-to-back, forming a relay, so that a local energy source at each intermediate station powered the next leg of transmission.

For duplex transmission, i.e.

C. F. Varley for telegraphic transmission.

Duplex transmission was essential for telephony and the problem was not satisfactorily solved until 1904, when H.

E. Shreeve of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company improved existing attempts at constructing a telephone repeater consisting of back-to-back carbon-granule transmitter and electrodynamic receiver pairs.

After the turn of the century it was found that negative resistance mercury lamps could amplify, and were also tried in repeaters, with little success.

For 50 years virtually all consumer electronic devices used vacuum tubes.

Early tube amplifiers often had positive feedback ( regeneration ), which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable and prone to oscillation.

Much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s to 1940s.

Distortion levels in early amplifiers were high, usually around 5, until 1934, when Harold Black developed negative feedback; this allowed the distortion levels to be greatly reduced, at the cost of lower gain.

Other advances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Nyquist and Hendrik Wade Bode.

Power control circuitry used magnetic amplifiers until the latter half of the twentieth century when power semiconductor devices became more economical, with higher operating speeds.

The old Shreeve electroacoustic carbon repeaters were used in adjustable amplifiers in telephone subscriber sets for the hearing impaired until the transistor provided smaller and higher quality amplifiers in the 1950s.

They were followed by the invention of the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) by Mohamed M.

Due to MOSFET scaling, the ability to scale down to increasingly small sizes, the MOSFET has since become the most widely used amplifier.

Today, use of vacuum tubes is limited for some high power applications, such as radio transmitters.

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